The Dawn Of Digital Type
Up until the 1950's metal type-setting and Lithography dominated the printing world. Soon however, mechanical typesetting was developing in to photographically generated typesetting systems.
(Taken From: Font. The Sourcebook, Robin Dodd)
"Developments were very fast and a deluge of systems flooded the market in the second half of the 1950's"
As the 1960's wore on, digital typesetting was beginning to show it's face as the better alternative to regular hot lead and lithography, despite this, there were similarities between the two as the first digital type was usually designed for text setting or for display setting.
"At about the same time, another generation of machines was launched. These were electromechanical, using valves, relays and other electronic devices. One of the first was the Lumitype/Photon machine. This moved typesetting on from the 19th century mechanical devices towards 20th century electronic devices."
It seems that technology is now progressing at an increased rate, and this reflects in the equipment used to produce type at the time. Slowly, advances in technology shift away from methods used 20 years ago entirely.
"The machine had a master film matrix in the form of a revolving disc. A light source projected type images onto light-sensitive photographic paper to produce lines of type. The first models were direct entry:that is, a single unit including a keyboard typographic unit and a photo unit. Later models were developed as a two-unit system"
"In 1961 IBM introduced a very different approach.: a strike-on system which used a golf-ball like typing head arrayed with row of characters. The "golf-ball" was available in a variety of typefaces and sizes, which were quickly interchangeable"
(Take from: http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1961.html)
"The Selectric becomes a popular piece of office equipment because of its ease in changing fonts and because it was available in a variety of colors."
Although this machines bare some similarities to the traditional type writer, the process was no longer entirely mechanical, they were hybrids. Less importantly, it also introduced the modern day keyboard as we know it. Because these units were smaller and easier to use, it instantly meant that the amount of design being outputted increased. More designers able to work more efficiently, inevitably led to higher production.
There is no doubt that the digitalisation of type has made it more prevalent than ever. Although we can see the beginning of this trend, the migration from the entirely mechanical methods, to the process being entirely electronic.
With the invention of the Cathode Ray Tuber (CRT Monitor), the industry took another step towards being dominated by digital print.
"Late in the 1960's, a third generation of photosetting machines was launched with the radical new feature of the type character formed on the face of a cathode ray tube, which were then exposed by the tube onto bromide paper. Linotypes Linotron 101 appeared in 1967. With these new machines type characters were scanned and converted into electronic symbols to form the characters on CRT...Later developments included the introduction of digitized characters, stored on a magnetic disc."
Now, instead of having multiple matrices for each different size character stored in a room, they could now be stored away from sight of anyone on a computer disc and be manipulated far more easily. One master font could be used for several sizes, however at larger sizes, the quality was uncertain.
It's this development that again increases the attraction to potential designers/typographers. If you wanted to go in to the printing business, you would require less floor space for each machine and be able to employ more people.
"It was in 1976 that the successful Monotype Lasercomp appeared, introducing a fourth generation of machines. These used lasers to expose the characters onto photographic material such as bromide paper or film. Lasers were capable of a very fine beam that could achieve great detail on photographic material."
"The economy of space afforded by electronic font files resulted in greater ranges of typefaces becoming available to the typesetters and printers."
So, less space used, greater availability & choice and in the long run, less cost. Again, this is evidence that developments in technology have aided design and all it's sub-categories, therefore typography, to not only be more inventive and artistic, but also produce said work to a higher quality than that which had been available before.
"The combined technologies of Off-set Lithography and computer-assisted phototypesetting machines were very important aids to greater freedom and refinement in typographic design."
Greater freedom and greater refinement imply that an even higher quality work could now be produced. Less boundaries means less rules are broken. You could be forgiven for thinking that this meant things got stale, but then you could also be forgiven for thinking that this meant things would get more exciting.
Now designers were not constricted as greatly as they had been in the past. They could spend more time being creative and producing more interesting work, rather than spending the same time and more money on out-dated printing methods. If a designer having more time to be creative doesn't change the outcome of his design, then nothing will.
Another thing I believe that enhanced the work of designers everywhere, was also one of the major developments of the century. The personal computer meant it wasn't just companies that could afford the privilidge of having access to expensive printing equipment.
The development of the personal computer alone, opened the entire industry up to the public, those who could afford them anyway. Now design & print wasn't something that you had to be trained to do, if you wanted, you could teach yourself to a professional standard without ever having step foot in a classroom.
"Type was generated photo-chemically, therefore type no longer had body, only a face. This allowed for refinements such as the adjustment of space between letters (tracking)...Awkward combinations of letters that caused gaps in words could no be adjusted to fit together better (kerning)."
As you can seen, the quality isn't outstanding, but it's satisfactory and functional. Of course there were many different varieties of fonts available at the time, which could be controlled so that they never looked irregular, or mis-positioned. It's now becoming more obvious that printing and typography have both taken a dramatic shift away from blue collar professions that required training and a steady hand, to the white collar where a steady hand was preferable, but not essential.
So not only had the personal computer allowed anyone to start practising, it had also opened the door for more professional work to be recognised, and new prospects for text layout and design.
"In 1985, Apple joined forces with Adobe and Aldus to create a new branch of personal computer application. Adobe was a company formed to develop Postscript level 1, a page description language that was capable of controlling output devices such as laser printers and image setters, which was to become an industry standard. Aldus was a small new software company marketing PageMaker, a typesetting and layout program."
Apple's end of the deal meant they had to produce a laser printer, compatible with the software produced by Adobe and Aldus. Previously the 128k had a dot matrix printer included with the initial cost. Because of the partnership, printers who were interested in using personal computers for professional use, could produce a much higher quality print.
http://streettech.com
Up until the 1950's metal type-setting and Lithography dominated the printing world. Soon however, mechanical typesetting was developing in to photographically generated typesetting systems.
(Taken From: Font. The Sourcebook, Robin Dodd)
"Developments were very fast and a deluge of systems flooded the market in the second half of the 1950's"
As the 1960's wore on, digital typesetting was beginning to show it's face as the better alternative to regular hot lead and lithography, despite this, there were similarities between the two as the first digital type was usually designed for text setting or for display setting.
"At about the same time, another generation of machines was launched. These were electromechanical, using valves, relays and other electronic devices. One of the first was the Lumitype/Photon machine. This moved typesetting on from the 19th century mechanical devices towards 20th century electronic devices."
It seems that technology is now progressing at an increased rate, and this reflects in the equipment used to produce type at the time. Slowly, advances in technology shift away from methods used 20 years ago entirely.
"The machine had a master film matrix in the form of a revolving disc. A light source projected type images onto light-sensitive photographic paper to produce lines of type. The first models were direct entry:that is, a single unit including a keyboard typographic unit and a photo unit. Later models were developed as a two-unit system"
"In 1961 IBM introduced a very different approach.: a strike-on system which used a golf-ball like typing head arrayed with row of characters. The "golf-ball" was available in a variety of typefaces and sizes, which were quickly interchangeable"
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| IBM "Selectric" Typewriter |
(Take from: http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1961.html)
"The Selectric becomes a popular piece of office equipment because of its ease in changing fonts and because it was available in a variety of colors."
Although this machines bare some similarities to the traditional type writer, the process was no longer entirely mechanical, they were hybrids. Less importantly, it also introduced the modern day keyboard as we know it. Because these units were smaller and easier to use, it instantly meant that the amount of design being outputted increased. More designers able to work more efficiently, inevitably led to higher production.
There is no doubt that the digitalisation of type has made it more prevalent than ever. Although we can see the beginning of this trend, the migration from the entirely mechanical methods, to the process being entirely electronic.
With the invention of the Cathode Ray Tuber (CRT Monitor), the industry took another step towards being dominated by digital print.
(Taken from http://www.designhistory.org/Digital_Revolution.html)
"In 1965, Dr. Ing. Rudolf Hell introduced the Digiset typesetting system. It was the first device to produce characters on a CRT entirely from digital masters. By the 1970's phototypesetting was replaced by stored information which was set as a series of small dots or closely spaced vertical lines that appeared solid in the finished product. The output speed was 1,000 to 10,000 characters per second.
DigiGrotesk was the first digital type font and was designed in 1968 by the Hell Design Studio and was available in seven weights from light to bold. Hermann Zapf, Gudrun von Hesse and Gerard Unger were early type designers for this new technology."
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A Hell Digiset |
(Taken from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/260239/Hell-Digiset)
'Hell-Digiset carries out a preliminary analysis by inscribing the outline of each letter on a very dense grid of 3,000 to 6,000 small squares, according to the body size of letter envisaged. Those squares covered by the outline are assigned the symbol 1 of the binary code; the others are assigned the symbol 0. The result of the analysis is first inscribed in perforations on an eight-channel'
Obviously, the digiset is now out-dated and no longer used. But it's initial introduction to the design world has had a substantial impact on the way fonts are produced today. Without machines like these, most designers would still be work with lead matrices.
"Late in the 1960's, a third generation of photosetting machines was launched with the radical new feature of the type character formed on the face of a cathode ray tube, which were then exposed by the tube onto bromide paper. Linotypes Linotron 101 appeared in 1967. With these new machines type characters were scanned and converted into electronic symbols to form the characters on CRT...Later developments included the introduction of digitized characters, stored on a magnetic disc."
Now, instead of having multiple matrices for each different size character stored in a room, they could now be stored away from sight of anyone on a computer disc and be manipulated far more easily. One master font could be used for several sizes, however at larger sizes, the quality was uncertain.
It's this development that again increases the attraction to potential designers/typographers. If you wanted to go in to the printing business, you would require less floor space for each machine and be able to employ more people.
"It was in 1976 that the successful Monotype Lasercomp appeared, introducing a fourth generation of machines. These used lasers to expose the characters onto photographic material such as bromide paper or film. Lasers were capable of a very fine beam that could achieve great detail on photographic material."
"The economy of space afforded by electronic font files resulted in greater ranges of typefaces becoming available to the typesetters and printers."
So, less space used, greater availability & choice and in the long run, less cost. Again, this is evidence that developments in technology have aided design and all it's sub-categories, therefore typography, to not only be more inventive and artistic, but also produce said work to a higher quality than that which had been available before.
"The combined technologies of Off-set Lithography and computer-assisted phototypesetting machines were very important aids to greater freedom and refinement in typographic design."
Greater freedom and greater refinement imply that an even higher quality work could now be produced. Less boundaries means less rules are broken. You could be forgiven for thinking that this meant things got stale, but then you could also be forgiven for thinking that this meant things would get more exciting.
Now designers were not constricted as greatly as they had been in the past. They could spend more time being creative and producing more interesting work, rather than spending the same time and more money on out-dated printing methods. If a designer having more time to be creative doesn't change the outcome of his design, then nothing will.
Another thing I believe that enhanced the work of designers everywhere, was also one of the major developments of the century. The personal computer meant it wasn't just companies that could afford the privilidge of having access to expensive printing equipment.
The development of the personal computer alone, opened the entire industry up to the public, those who could afford them anyway. Now design & print wasn't something that you had to be trained to do, if you wanted, you could teach yourself to a professional standard without ever having step foot in a classroom.
"Type was generated photo-chemically, therefore type no longer had body, only a face. This allowed for refinements such as the adjustment of space between letters (tracking)...Awkward combinations of letters that caused gaps in words could no be adjusted to fit together better (kerning)."
 |
| A sample printout from the Macintosh using its printer and the MacWrite word-processing program. The output here is shown at 100 percent of actual size. |
As you can seen, the quality isn't outstanding, but it's satisfactory and functional. Of course there were many different varieties of fonts available at the time, which could be controlled so that they never looked irregular, or mis-positioned. It's now becoming more obvious that printing and typography have both taken a dramatic shift away from blue collar professions that required training and a steady hand, to the white collar where a steady hand was preferable, but not essential.
 |
| The Macintosh 128k |
So not only had the personal computer allowed anyone to start practising, it had also opened the door for more professional work to be recognised, and new prospects for text layout and design.
"In 1985, Apple joined forces with Adobe and Aldus to create a new branch of personal computer application. Adobe was a company formed to develop Postscript level 1, a page description language that was capable of controlling output devices such as laser printers and image setters, which was to become an industry standard. Aldus was a small new software company marketing PageMaker, a typesetting and layout program."
Apple's end of the deal meant they had to produce a laser printer, compatible with the software produced by Adobe and Aldus. Previously the 128k had a dot matrix printer included with the initial cost. Because of the partnership, printers who were interested in using personal computers for professional use, could produce a much higher quality print.
 |
| Dot Matrix printexample: |
The Laser Printer is something that is still around today and we take for granted as we can buy a new laser printer for a fraction of the cost of the Apple LaserWriter when it was first released ($6995 in 1985).
However with the rate that technology was advancing it would only be a matter of time before the general public had a financially viable option to purchase.
(Taken From:
Raster imaging and digital typography II, Volume 2,
Robert A. Morris, Jacques André)"There has been constant demand for new fonts in the typography industry. This demand has increased since the advent of powerful computers with sophisticated graphics has made possible automatic font design."
Dot Matrix Printers were capable of printing colour images, but they were very poor and could never be used for a professional endeavour. Up until now, dot matrix could print up to a max of 144 PPI, the latest Laser printers at the time could print a max of 300, double that of the previous generation.
With printing technology finally emerging to greet the masses, new problems for typographers arose that weren't previously an issue. For example, plagiarism became a lot easier to get away with. Plagiarism didn't just affect typographers financially, it also had an effect on the industry itself.
"First, most type plagiarisms are badly done. The plagiarists do not understand the nature of the designs they are imitating, are unwilling to spend the necessary time and effort to do good work, and consequently botch the job. They then try to fob off their junk on unsuspecting users (authors, editors, and readers). Without copyright, the original designer cannot require the reproducer of a type to do a good job of reproduction. Hence, type quality is degraded by unauthorized copying."
" Secondly, without protection, designs may be freely imitated; the plagiarist robs the original designer of financial compensation for the work. This discourages creative designers from entering and working in the field. As the needs of typography change (on-line documents and laser printing are examples of technical and conceptual changes) new kinds of typefaces are required. Creative design in response to such needs cannot flourish without some kind of encouragement for the creators."
While many people argue that plagiarism is justifiable because designers are often paid a very small amount by the publisher anyway, any income the original designer would get, is diverted to the plagiarist. While this doesn't directly affect design outcomes, I believe that it effects the appeal of the industry to outsiders, and therefore the subsequent influx of newcomers and consequently the influences and sharing of ideas that go towards creating good design.
In relation to web design, another problem faced is that to use a font for a website, it has to be installed on the users computer. Of course, there are only a few selected fonts that are "web-safe", as in a list of fonts that the large majority have installed on there computers. Of course this limits the amount of flexibility a designer is capable of.
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| "Web-safe" fonts |
Released in 1984, Postscript fonts (Type 1) were made up of two parts whereas Truetype only consists of one.
(Taken From: From Gutenburg To Opentype Robin Dodd)
"A set of fixed size bitmap font files for screen display and a Postscript font file to be used by the output device (Ex. Apple LaserWriter). True type, the other method developed by Apple, provided information or screen display and the output device in a single file, which could contain sufficient information to generate plain, plain italic, bold and bold italic."
The fact that Type 1 font were technically inferior to Truetype could be an indication of why Type 1 are no longer in use. In 1991 Adobe released in 1991 called Multiple Master Fonts, Type 1 fonts that carry more than one digital outline. A font could contain the data for it's weight, width, style or size or all four together. Now it was possible for designers to customize fonts by modifying the aforementioned attributes at free will, therefore allowing for greater freedom and flexibility.
Truetype is still around today as one of the major formats used by designers. Another major font type developed around the same time and that is still in use today is Opentype produced by Adobe and Microsoft in 1997, putting an end to the long term rivalry between the two.
(Taken From: From Gutenburg to Opentype Robin Dodd)
"Opentype produces major innovations to digital typesetting. First it is cross-platform: files function equally for Macintosh OSX and Windows operating systems. Opentype is also supported by Unicode to provide an increase of the standard character set of up to 64,000 glyphs. The regular typeface can now include a far greater number of characters, ligatures, true Small Capitals, Oldstyle figures, swash capitals, fractions, and special characters, as well as Cyrillic and Greek. These innovation makes possible typographic designs of amazing refinement and richness never before achievable."
Unfortunately while font design has progressed since then with the development of OpenType and TrueType, their primary use on the web hasn't kept up until now. Recent developments in technology have allowed products such a TypeKit:
(Taken From: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typekit)
"Typekit is a service launched in September, 2009 by Small Batch, Inc. which, via JavaScript and a subscription service, allows webmasters and designers to embed non-standard, non-system-specific fonts into online documents. It uses the only recently implemented @font-face CSS property and is available to the public."
(Taken From: http://typekit.com/about.html)
"Built around web standards, our service gives designers and developers a subscription-based library of hosted, high-quality fonts to use on their websites. We have over 250,000 customers including some of the largest sites on the web today: The New York Times, Conde Nast, IGN, Twitter, and many others. We are also actively integrating Typekit into hosted platforms—such as WordPress, TypePad, and Posterous—so that anyone with a website can use real font"
Currently, I believe that we have reached a plateau for hardware development, what I mean is, technology has reached a point where instead of creating new ways to increase hardware performance by designing entirely new systems, we are currently at a stage where we maximise the potential of existing hardware. Examples include increasing RAM, CPU power, Graphics integration and software development. Rather than hardware dictating software design, now both play a critical role in each others development. Newer, more powerful hardware allows for greater software progression and the demand for ever increasing software capabilities drives hardware growth.
I think I'm beginning to understand the progression of type and becoming more capable of answering my question. "Has the advent of purely digitial typography negatively effected design outcomes and consumers perceptions of design?", personally I don't believe so. Of course there are drawbacks to this digitization, but the overall progress of the design industry and typography itself has made massive leaps forward
I think I'm beginning to understand the progression of type and becoming more capable of answering my question. "Has the advent of purely digitial typography negatively effected design outcomes and consumers perceptions of design?", personally I don't believe so. Of course there are drawbacks to this digitization, but the overall progress of the design industry and typography itself has made massive leaps forward
